Industrial Robotics

An industrial robot is a programmable, multi-axis manipulator that moves a tool or a part through space, repeatably and tirelessly. It is one component of a robot cell, which also holds tooling, fixtures, sensors, a controller and safeguarding, and most of the success of a robot project comes from the cell and the tooling, not from the arm. This guide takes the subject in ten pages: how to choose a robot, coordinate frames and kinematics, motion and programming, payload and cycle time, grippers, vision and calibration, cell design and PLC integration, safety, the main applications, and commissioning and upkeep. Every worked number is computed so that you can check your own cell against it. The software and simulation side (ROS, kinematics code) is in Robotics Tools.

Start here: what do you need?

I need to…	Go to
choose between an articulated arm, a SCARA, a delta, a gantry or a cobot, and read the datasheet	Robot Types, Specifications and Selection
set a tool center point, work with frames or understand inverse kinematics and singularities	Coordinate Frames and Kinematics
program moves, blend corners or choose between teaching and offline programming	Motion, Paths and Programming
check a payload, size the gearboxes or shorten the cycle time	Payload, Inertia, Speed and Cycle Time
choose a gripper, size a vacuum cup or design a tool	End-of-Arm Tooling and Grippers
guide the robot with a camera, calibrate it or find out why it misses	Vision, Calibration and Accuracy
lay out a cell, connect it to the PLC or balance it with the line	Cell Design, PLC Integration and Feeding
guard a cell, place a light curtain or set up a collaborative application	Safety: Standards, Safeguarding and Cobots
plan a palletizer, a welding cell or a machine tending cell	Applications: Palletizing, Welding and Machine Tending
commission, back up, maintain or troubleshoot a robot	Commissioning, Maintenance and Troubleshooting

A suggested order

Start with Robot Types, Specifications and Selection, because the choice of robot follows from the task. Then Coordinate Frames and Kinematics and Motion, Paths and Programming explain how a robot moves; Payload, Inertia, Speed and Cycle Time, End-of-Arm Tooling and Grippers and Vision, Calibration and Accuracy decide whether it can do the job well. Cell Design, PLC Integration and Feeding, Safety: Standards, Safeguarding and Cobots and Applications: Palletizing, Welding and Machine Tending turn a robot into a working cell, and Commissioning, Maintenance and Troubleshooting keeps it running.

1. Robot Types, Specifications and Selection: Articulated, SCARA, delta, cartesian and collaborative robots, work envelopes, payload, reach, repeatability and how to choose.
2. Coordinate Frames and Kinematics: Base, world, tool and user frames, the tool center point, forward and inverse kinematics, the wrist, configurations and singularities.
3. Motion, Paths and Programming: Joint and linear moves, velocity profiles, blending, teach, lead-through and offline programming, and robot languages.
4. Payload, Inertia, Speed and Cycle Time: Load charts, moment and inertia limits, joint torque and gearbox sizing, acceleration limits and how to shorten the cycle.
5. End-of-Arm Tooling and Grippers: Parallel, angular and vacuum grippers, grip force and vacuum cup sizing, tool changers, compliance and fail-safe design.
6. Vision, Calibration and Accuracy: Repeatability against accuracy, hand-eye calibration, error budgets, conveyor tracking and force sensing.
7. Cell Design, PLC Integration and Feeding: Layout and reach studies, fixtures, feeders and conveyors, the PLC handshake, fieldbus links and throughput balancing.
8. Safety: Standards, Safeguarding and Cobots: ISO 10218, risk assessment, light-curtain distance, stopping distance, speed and separation monitoring and power and force limiting.
9. Applications: Palletizing, Welding and Machine Tending: Pallet patterns, welding travel speed and heat input, machine tending cycles, dispensing and painting, with computed examples.
10. Commissioning, Maintenance and Troubleshooting: Mastering and calibration, acceptance tests, backups, encoder batteries, lubrication, spares, payback and a troubleshooting table.

The robot cell at a glance

Part of the cell	What goes wrong	Where to look
Robot	Wrong size, payload or reach; singularities	Robot Types, Specifications and Selection, Coordinate Frames and Kinematics, Payload, Inertia, Speed and Cycle Time
Tool and fixtures	Dropped parts, overweight tools, parts in the wrong place	End-of-Arm Tooling and Grippers, Cell Design, PLC Integration and Feeding
Sensing	Camera and robot disagree; sensors not confirmed	Vision, Calibration and Accuracy
Programs and PLC	Handshake faults, slow cycles, poor recovery	Motion, Paths and Programming, Cell Design, PLC Integration and Feeding
Safeguarding	Distance too short; assessed the arm, not the cell	Safety: Standards, Safeguarding and Cobots
Upkeep	Lost mastering, flat encoder battery, worn cables	Commissioning, Maintenance and Troubleshooting

Quick reference: formulas and rules

Topic	Formula or rule	Page
Two-link inverse kinematics	cos θ₂ = (x² + y² − L₁² − L₂²) ÷ (2 L₁ L₂)	Coordinate Frames and Kinematics
Trapezoid move time	T = D ÷ v + v ÷ a (D ≥ v² ÷ a)	Motion, Paths and Programming
Wrist moment	M = m g d; allowed mass = Mmax ÷ (g d)	Payload, Inertia, Speed and Cycle Time
Gear torque at the joint	τmotor = τjoint ÷ (N η)	Payload, Inertia, Speed and Cycle Time
Vacuum force	F = ΔP × A; mass = F ÷ (g × safety factor)	End-of-Arm Tooling and Grippers
Error budget	u = √(u₁² + u₂² + …) for independent errors	Vision, Calibration and Accuracy
Light-curtain distance	S = K T + C (ISO 13855)	Safety: Standards, Safeguarding and Cobots
Heat input	Q = η U I ÷ v	Applications: Palletizing, Welding and Machine Tending
Payback	cost ÷ (annual saving)	Commissioning, Maintenance and Troubleshooting

Related guides and tools

• Motion Control and Actuators: servos, gearboxes, drives and pneumatics inside and around the robot.
• Sensors and Field Devices: vision sensors, grip detection and position sensing.
• PLC and Logic Control and Industrial Communication: the controller and the fieldbus side of the cell.
• Robotics Tools: ROS, simulation and kinematics in code.
• System Integration: the panel, the safety circuit and commissioning.
• Motor Torque and Inertia Matching Calculator: sizing the motor and gearbox for an axis.

Safety first

• An industrial robot is dangerous: it is strong, fast and can move unexpectedly. Design safety in from the start, by a risk assessment of the whole cell (see Safety: Standards, Safeguarding and Cobots).
• Never enter the working area unless the robot is stopped, locked out and its stored energy controlled.
• A collaborative robot is not automatically a safe application: a sharp tool, a heavy part or a fast move can make a cobot dangerous.
• The numbers in this guide are typical. Use the manufacturers’ data and the current standards, and have competent people validate a real cell.

FAQ

Which robot type should I choose?

Match it to the task: a SCARA or delta for fast, light, planar work; an articulated arm where orientation matters or the reach is long; a cartesian gantry for large rectangular areas; a cobot where people and robot share space. See Robot Types, Specifications and Selection.

What is the difference between repeatability and accuracy?

Repeatability is how closely the robot returns to a point it was taught; accuracy is how close it gets to a point calculated from a model. Accuracy is usually several times worse unless the robot is calibrated. See Vision, Calibration and Accuracy.

Can a cobot work without a fence?

Possibly, but only after a risk assessment of the specific application, including the tool, the workpiece and the speed. See Safety: Standards, Safeguarding and Cobots.

Where did the old Industrial Robotics sections go?

All of them are in this guide with much more depth: the types, frames and kinematics, tooling, programming, cycle time, safety, maintenance and troubleshooting each have a place in the ten pages.

References

• ISO 10218-1 and ISO 10218-2, Robotics: safety requirements for industrial robots and robot systems (revised 2025); ISO/TS 15066, Collaborative robots; ISO 13855 and ISO 12100.
• Craig, J. J., Introduction to Robotics: Mechanics and Control, Pearson; Spong, M., Hutchinson, S. and Vidyasagar, M., Robot Modeling and Control, Wiley.
• ISO 9283, Manipulating industrial robots: performance criteria and related test methods; the robot manufacturers’ manuals and the International Federation of Robotics (IFR) publications.

Last reviewed: October 2026. Values are typical: always use the robot and component manufacturers’ data. Safety distances and risk assessments for a real cell must be done by competent people against the current standards.