Hand Tools, Marking Out and Cutting
Layout and marking, saws, files and chisels, squareness checks, hand drilling, deburring and how much force a hand tool really needs.
Marking out
Accurate work begins with accurate marks. Marking out is measuring made visible: a line to cut to, a point to drill at, an edge to file to. Use the sharpest, finest marker that the material allows and cut or drill on the waste side of the line.
| Material | Marker | Line width | Tip |
|---|---|---|---|
| Wood | Marking knife, marking gauge | 0.05 mm (a cut line) | A knife line gives the saw or chisel a groove to start in |
| Metal (bare) | Scriber with layout blue or marker dye | 0.05 to 0.1 mm | Center-punch drill points and hole centers |
| Sheet and plastic | Fine permanent pen or scribe | 0.2 to 0.5 mm | Mask the surface to avoid scratches |
| Rough work | Pencil | 0.3 to 0.5 mm | Keep it sharp, and work to the same side of the line each time |
Worked example: a cut list and the saw kerf
- You need 290 mm pieces from a 1 200 mm board. Ignoring the kerf, 1 200 ÷ 290 = 4.1, so it looks like 4 pieces.
- Each cut wastes the width of the saw’s kerf, here 1.5 mm. With 4 pieces there are 3 cuts (the last piece needs none) so the total length is 4 × 290 + 3 × 1.5 = 1164.5 mm, which fits in 1 200 mm. The leftover is 35.5 mm.
- Mark from one end, with a stop block or a measured stick, not by marking each piece from the last cut: errors add up. Cut on the waste side and leave the line.
- Square the lines round the part with an engineer’s or combination square so the cut and the drilled holes agree (see Measuring Tools and Accuracy).
- Use a center punch for holes in metal: the drill tip sits in the dimple and does not wander.
- Use the same face and edge as reference for every measurement on a part.
Sawing
A saw tooth cuts like a tiny chisel, and the number of teeth per inch (TPI) sets how smooth and how fast it cuts. For metal the rule is to keep at least three teeth in contact with the material, so that none catches in the cut and strips.
| Thickness | Teeth needed | Typical blade |
|---|---|---|
| 1.5 mm | 51 TPI or finer | Use snips or a piercing saw (50 TPI or finer) |
| 3.0 mm | 26 TPI or finer | 32 TPI hacksaw blade |
| 6.0 mm | 13 TPI or finer | 18 to 24 TPI |
| 12.0 mm | 7 TPI or finer | 14 to 18 TPI |
Worked example: blade choice and cutting time
- For 3.0 mm sheet the minimum pitch is 3 ÷ (0.1 in) = 25 TPI. A 24 TPI blade has a pitch of 1.06 mm: 2.8 teeth in a 3 mm sheet is below three, so use 32 TPI (0.79 mm, 3.8 teeth).
- For a 25 mm steel bar a 14 TPI blade (pitch 1.81 mm) is right.
- Cutting rate by hand on mild steel is about 300 mm² per minute (typical). A 25 mm bar has a section of 491 mm², so it takes 491 ÷ 300 = 1.6 minutes, about 98 strokes at 60 per minute.
- The total blade travel is 49 m: a good reason to use a bandsaw for repeated cuts (see Power Tools and Shop Machines).
- Saw on the push stroke (hacksaw) with light pressure, and lift on the return. Use the whole blade length, at 50 to 60 strokes per minute.
- Start the cut on a notch made with a file or a knife so the saw does not skate.
- Clamp the work close to the cut and let the saw do the work (see Workholding, Clamping and Fixtures).
- Wood saws: a crosscut saw cuts across the grain, a rip saw along it; fine-toothed backsaws for joints.
- Use oil or cutting fluid on steel and wax on aluminum to stop the teeth clogging.
Filing and shaping
- Cut: rough, bastard, second-cut and smooth; coarser files remove more and leave a rougher surface.
- Shape: flat, half-round, round, square, triangular; use the one that matches the work.
- Draw-filing (pushing the file sideways along an edge) gives a flat, fine finish.
- Stroke on the push, lift on the return; clean the file with a card brush; chalk stops clogging on soft metals.
- Fit a handle: a file’s tang can pierce a hand.
Worked example: how much a file removes
A rough file takes about 0.01 mm per stroke on a 20 × 25 mm face at light pressure (typical). To remove 0.5 mm takes 50 strokes, about 60 seconds at 50 strokes a minute: file to the line, then stop. Filing by hand is for small amounts; take large cuts with a saw or a machine.
Chisels, hammers and mallets
A hammer or mallet delivers energy ½ m v² at the instant of impact. A heavier head at a modest speed is more controlled than a light head swung hard.
Worked example: strike energy
- A 0.5 kg mallet at 3 m/s delivers ½ × 0.5 × 3² = 2.25 J.
- A 0.45 kg claw hammer at 5 m/s delivers 5.6 J: more than twice the energy of the mallet, in a much smaller area (the metal head damages tools and finishes).
- Use a mallet on a wooden chisel handle, a hammer on a metal punch or cold chisel, and a soft-faced hammer on finished parts.
- Keep both hands behind the cutting edge, and clamp the work: a slipped chisel goes where your hand was.
- Pare with the bevel down or up to control the depth; chop across the grain with the flat on the waste side.
- Mushroomed heads on cold chisels and punches splinter when struck: dress them on the grinder.
- Wear eye protection; chips fly.
Hand drilling and screwdrivers
Worked example: holes that wander
- A hand drill held 3° off square makes a 20 mm hole whose bottom is 20 × tan(3°) = 1.0 mm out of line with the entry. Use a drilling guide, a square beside the drill, or a drill press (see Power Tools and Shop Machines).
- Punch the center and start with a small pilot drill (2 mm for a 6 mm hole): the chisel edge of a drill does not cut and wanders on a flat surface.
- A screwdriver with a 30 mm handle and 40 N at the rim gives about 1.20 N·m; a 0.2 m wrench with 150 N gives 30 N·m. Torque for fasteners is in Drilling, Tapping and Fasteners.
- Use the right driver tip, pressed firmly in line with the screw, to avoid cam-out and a rounded head.
Deburring and finishing edges
Every cut leaves a burr: a thin sharp ridge on the edge. It cuts hands, stops parts fitting, and starts cracks in fatigue loading.
- Break every edge with a file, a deburring tool or abrasive: a chamfer of 0.3 mm (or more) at 45° is typical.
- Burr height of 0.15 mm (typical for sawn steel) is enough to keep two faces from sitting flat.
- Deburr inside holes with a countersink or a larger drill turned by hand.
- Deburr last, after all the cutting and drilling is done, and before measuring a mating part.
- Wood: a block plane or sandpaper to ease sharp arrises; avoid rounding the surface that must be flat.
Choosing hand tools
| Job | Core tool | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Cutting wood | Backsaw, hand saw, coping saw | Fine teeth for joints; pull-stroke Japanese saws are easy to control |
| Cutting metal | Hacksaw, snips, bolt cutter | Match the blade pitch to the thickness |
| Shaping | Files, rasps, block plane, spokeshave | A few good files beat many poor ones |
| Chopping and paring | Chisels (6, 12, 19, 25 mm), mallet | Keep them sharp (see Sharpening, Maintenance and Tool Care) |
| Hitting | Claw hammer, ball-pein hammer, soft-face mallet | Match the head to the job |
| Gripping | Pliers, side cutters, vise grips, locking pliers | Do not use pliers on nuts: use a spanner |
| Turning | Screwdrivers, hex keys, spanners, adjustable wrench | Spanners that fit; six-point sockets for tight bolts |
| Measuring and marking | Rule, square, scribe, punch | See Measuring Tools and Accuracy |
- Buy fewer, better tools. A good hand tool lasts decades; a poor one dulls, bends or breaks.
- Keep to a few sizes in the beginning and add as jobs demand (see Organizing, Buying and Budgeting).
Troubleshooting
| Problem | Likely cause | Try |
|---|---|---|
| Saw wanders off the line | Blunt, pushed too hard, unsupported work | New blade; light pressure; clamp close to the cut; start with a knife line |
| Hacksaw blade loses teeth | Pitch too coarse for the thickness, loose blade | Use at least three teeth in the cut; tension the blade |
| File clogs and scratches | Soft metal, no chalk, too much pressure | Chalk the file; clean with a brush; lighter strokes |
| Chisel tears the wood | Dull edge, cutting against the grain | Sharpen; change the direction of cut |
| Drill wanders | No center punch, off square | Punch the center; pilot hole; use a guide |
| Screw head rounds off | Wrong driver, too little pressure | Use the right size tip and press in line |
Related
- Shop Tools: the overview of this guide.
- Measuring Tools and Accuracy: measuring and squareness.
- Power Tools and Shop Machines: when to move from hand to machine.
- Workholding, Clamping and Fixtures: holding the work for sawing, filing and chiseling.
FAQ
Which hacksaw blade should I use?
Choose the pitch so that at least three teeth touch the material at all times: 14 to 18 TPI for thick bar, 24 to 32 for sheet and tube.
Why do I mark with a scribe instead of a pencil?
A scribed line is about ten times finer than a pencil line, and a knife line in wood gives the saw a groove to follow.
How do I stop a drill wandering?
Center-punch the mark, start with a small pilot drill, and hold the drill square (or use a drill press).
Do I need to deburr?
Yes: every cut edge has a burr that cuts hands and stops parts fitting; break every edge.
References
- Oberg et al., Machinery’s Handbook (saw blade selection, files).
- Starrett, Hand tools and measuring instruments catalogs and technical guides.
- Hoadley, R. B., Understanding Wood, Taunton Press (working wood by hand).
Last reviewed: October 2026. Cutting rates and forces are typical: your own tools and material will differ.